Deep in Egypt’s Eastern Desert, amid rugged hills and wind-swept ruins, a team of archaeologists has unearthed a chilling link to a brutal chapter in ancient history. At a remote dig site in Ghozza, iron shackles have been recovered, sparking a provocative theory: forced labor and slavery fueled the gold mining boom during Egypt’s Ptolemaic period. But who were these shackled workers? And how does their story reshape our understanding of ancient Egypt’s gleaming legacy?
A New Theory Emerges from Ancient Dust
Dr. Bérangère Redon, a historian with Laboratoire HiSoMA at the Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée Jean Pouilloux in France, has long been fascinated by the gritty, often untold history of labor in antiquity. In a recently published paper in the prestigious journal Antiquity, Redon delves into the darker realities of gold mining during the Ptolemaic dynasty—a period often remembered for its cultural fusion and wealth, but less so for the people whose sweat and suffering made it possible.
Redon’s theory is grounded in the discovery of heavy iron shackles at the Ghozza gold mine site. Though Egypt has a long and storied history of gold extraction, these grim artifacts suggest that not everyone who dug for the precious metal did so willingly. “We’ve known for centuries that Egypt’s wealth was built, in part, on its gold mines,” Redon explains. “But these findings force us to confront the possibility that this wealth came at an even greater human cost than we previously understood.”
Egypt’s Glittering Past—and Its Price
Egypt’s relationship with gold stretches back thousands of years. The metal was revered by pharaohs and gods alike, used to craft jewelry, statues, and burial treasures that were believed to ensure immortality. Gold signified divine power and eternal life, and no period saw a greater hunger for it than the Ptolemaic era.
Following Alexander the Great’s conquest in 332 BC, Egypt was ruled by the Ptolemaic dynasty, a Hellenistic royal family of Macedonian-Greek origin. They presided over a period of cultural and economic expansion, where the need for wealth was insatiable. Gold financed military campaigns and monumental building projects that stretched across the Mediterranean world. Egypt’s Eastern Desert, rich in gold deposits, became a hub for mining activities.
But extracting gold in antiquity was no easy feat. Mines in the Eastern Desert were remote, brutally hot, and water-starved. Workers toiled under dangerous conditions, breaking rocks with primitive tools and hauling ore through narrow shafts. What Redon and his colleagues have uncovered at Ghozza suggests that some of these miners may have been shackled, literally bound to their toil.
Ghozza: A Tale of Two Settlements
The site at Ghozza has been under excavation for several years, following earlier work at another nearby mining complex, Samut North. Redon’s focus on Ghozza reveals a tale of two very different occupational phases, both situated in the late third century BC.
During the first period, archaeologists uncovered what could be described as a relatively organized village. Here, workers appeared to live in houses, with access to communal baths and administrative buildings. The presence of these structures, combined with evidence of compensation—pottery shards inscribed with workers’ names and quantities of grain payments—paints a picture of a community of free laborers who were at least nominally treated with some degree of dignity.
But the second occupational phase tells a different, grimmer story.
By this time, much of the earlier infrastructure had either fallen into disrepair or was repurposed. The living conditions seem to have worsened, and evidence of forced labor becomes hard to ignore. Near an old storage facility—now thought to have served as a repair shop for metal tools—archaeologists found two sets of heavy iron shackles. Their proximity to workspaces and repair areas suggests they weren’t incidental finds. Instead, they were part of the equipment used to control and constrain a certain segment of the mining workforce.
“These shackles were not ornamental,” Redon states. “They were practical devices, made to ensure compliance through physical restraint. Walking with them around one’s ankles would have been agonizing and exhausting.”
Slaves, Prisoners, or Criminals?
The discovery of shackles invites a deeper question: Who were the people forced to wear them?
While direct evidence is scarce, historical sources hint at several possibilities. Ancient writers mention forced labor in Egypt’s gold mines, describing convicts, prisoners of war, and slaves who were condemned to backbreaking work in these desolate regions. Some were likely criminals serving out punishments, while others could have been captives from Egypt’s military campaigns. Yet, in many cases, the distinction between “slave” and “prisoner” blurs.
Ptolemaic rulers were known for their strategic military conquests, and captives from foreign campaigns often found themselves in Egypt’s workforce. There is also evidence that the Ptolemies practiced forms of debt servitude, where impoverished Egyptians could be bound to labor if they failed to repay debts.
What is clear from the shackles at Ghozza is that their use marks a darker, coercive aspect of Ptolemaic labor practices. “We can’t say for sure whether these individuals were prisoners, criminals, or enslaved,” Redon cautions, “but the fact that they were shackled speaks volumes.”
Beyond Ghozza: The Broader Implications
Redon’s findings at Ghozza are significant because they challenge the traditional narrative of Ptolemaic Egypt as a relatively enlightened and prosperous era. While Egypt under the Ptolemies did see cultural flourishing—think of the Library of Alexandria and advances in science and art—it was also a time of deep social stratification. The state’s wealth depended on the exploitation of its underclasses, whether through taxation, corvée labor, or outright slavery.
Ghozza becomes a microcosm of this reality, showing how forced labor was integral to industries critical to the Ptolemaic economy. And while Redon’s focus is on gold mining, similar dynamics likely existed in other labor-intensive sectors such as agriculture, quarrying, and construction.
His research also draws attention to the resilience and suffering of those who labored under these harsh conditions. Even in an age often romanticized for its intellectual achievements and royal splendor, there was a human cost. As Redon puts it, “We must remember that behind every gleaming gold artifact in a museum, there are untold stories of the people who mined that gold—often under duress.”
Revisiting Ancient Assumptions
The discovery at Ghozza is part of a broader trend in archaeology and historical scholarship: a willingness to confront uncomfortable truths about the ancient world. For decades, historians have often focused on rulers, elites, and monuments, but new research increasingly shines a light on the lives of ordinary people, including those who suffered under oppressive systems.
Redon’s work exemplifies this shift. Rather than stopping at the evidence of architectural remains or industrial activities, he probes deeper, asking not just how things were done, but who did them—and under what conditions.
The iron shackles at Ghozza may be simple objects of iron, but they speak volumes. They bridge a gap between the grand narratives of empire and the lived experiences of those who built and sustained it. In doing so, they challenge us to see ancient Egypt in all its complexity—not just as a land of pyramids and pharaohs, but as a society where power and oppression often walked hand in hand.
The Enduring Legacy of Ghozza’s Shackles
For modern observers, the story of Ghozza is both sobering and illuminating. It reminds us that wealth and beauty often come at a cost, and that the glitter of gold can hide a much darker reality beneath the surface. Redon’s theory, grounded in meticulous archaeological work, adds an important dimension to our understanding of ancient Egypt.
As new discoveries continue to emerge from Egypt’s deserts, the narrative of its past will no doubt evolve. But thanks to the work of researchers like Bérangère Redon, we are better equipped to see that past in its full complexity: a world where greatness and suffering coexisted, where power was built on the backs of the oppressed, and where even the most glorious treasures of antiquity often have a human price.
Reference: Bérangère Redon, Iron shackles from the Ptolemaic gold mines of Ghozza (Egypt, Eastern Desert), Antiquity (2025). DOI: 10.15184/aqy.2025.39