As the world races towards a cleaner, greener future, the demand for renewable energy technologies and energy storage systems is soaring. Wind turbines, solar panels, electric vehicles (EVs), and massive battery installations are at the forefront of the global shift to a decarbonized society. But behind the promise of these technologies lies an often overlooked and increasingly pressing issue: the environmental cost of the metals and minerals that make them possible.
Critical geological resources—such as lithium, cobalt, copper, nickel, and rare earth elements—are essential building blocks for the energy transition. They are the silent enablers of modern life, tucked into our smartphones, power grids, and electric cars. Without them, the future of renewable energy would be bleak. However, extracting and refining these resources comes with a hidden price tag, particularly in the form of water consumption and carbon emissions.
The Unsung Role of Water in Resource Production
Most people think about mining in terms of land disruption and pollution, but water use is a less visible, yet no less serious, concern. Mining operations require vast amounts of water—whether for extracting ore from the ground, processing and separating valuable metals (beneficiation), or refining them into usable forms. Water is integral at every step, but as the demand for critical metals rises, so does the strain on the planet’s finite freshwater resources.
This growing demand raises an urgent question: Can we keep extracting these critical metals without breaching the Earth’s environmental limits—what scientists refer to as planetary boundaries?
Planetary Boundaries: The Limits We Dare Not Cross
Planetary boundaries are thresholds beyond which humanity risks destabilizing Earth’s systems. These include limits on carbon emissions, biodiversity loss, and freshwater consumption. For geological resource production, water availability is emerging as a major planetary boundary under threat.
Alarmingly, water use in mining and refining operations has already crossed sustainable limits in many regions. According to recent data, 24% of global water consumption exceeds the renewable supply, placing enormous pressure on watersheds and ecosystems. And this pressure is only growing.
Mining’s Thirst: A Closer Look at the Numbers
Recent research spearheaded by Dr. Masaharu Motoshita and his team at Japan’s National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology offers an eye-opening assessment of water use in global resource production. Published in Science, the study provides the most comprehensive analysis to date of how water constraints could limit the availability of critical geological resources.
The team examined 32 essential metals and minerals across approximately 3,300 mining sites worldwide. Their findings are sobering: water consumption for producing 25 out of the 32 resources exceeded sustainable limits based on local water availability.
One example is copper—a metal vital for electrical wiring, renewable energy infrastructure, and battery production. While copper doesn’t require as much water to produce as iron, the study found that a staggering 37% of global copper production takes place in areas where water use surpasses sustainable thresholds. In comparison, only 9% of iron production faced the same issue.
Why Does This Matter?
The implication is clear: we can’t simply focus on the total water used in mining; we also have to consider where that water is being used. Mines located in arid regions or areas already experiencing water stress exacerbate environmental degradation and strain communities dependent on these watersheds. And because metals like copper, lithium, and cobalt are often found in such water-stressed areas (think Chile’s Atacama Desert or parts of Australia), shifting production to wetter regions isn’t always an option.
Moreover, climate change threatens to worsen this situation. Rising temperatures, prolonged droughts, and changing precipitation patterns further strain freshwater resources, compounding the challenges of sustainable mining.
Carbon Emissions: The Other Half of the Problem
While water is a critical concern, it’s not the only environmental footprint of resource extraction. Mining and refining geological resources account for approximately 10% of global carbon emissions. The energy-intensive nature of mining—especially when powered by fossil fuels—undermines the very goals of decarbonization that these critical materials are supposed to support.
What Can Be Done?
According to Dr. Motoshita, the solution lies in a combination of strategies aimed at reducing environmental impacts and improving sustainability:
1. Enhancing Resource Efficiency
This means improving mining technologies to use less water and energy. Innovations such as dry processing methods, water recycling systems, and energy-efficient beneficiation techniques can significantly reduce the environmental footprint of mining operations.
2. Promoting Recycling and Circular Economy Practices
Rather than continuously mining new materials, societies must prioritize the recovery and recycling of metals from end-of-life products. Urban mining—reclaiming metals from discarded electronics, vehicles, and batteries—offers a valuable, less resource-intensive alternative.
3. Shifting to Renewable Energy for Mining
Many mining operations still rely on fossil fuels. Transitioning these operations to renewable energy sources like solar and wind can dramatically cut carbon emissions, making resource extraction more sustainable.
4. Developing Alternative Materials
Research into alternative materials or substitutes for critical metals can help reduce dependence on scarce resources. For example, advancements in battery technology are exploring the use of abundant materials like sodium instead of lithium.
5. Implementing Water Stewardship Policies
Mining companies, governments, and communities need to collaborate on responsible water management. This includes respecting local water rights, ensuring fair distribution of water resources, and protecting ecosystems.
Policymakers Have a Crucial Role
Governments and international bodies must recognize water as a critical constraint on mineral supply chains. They can enforce stricter regulations on water usage, require environmental impact assessments that include water considerations, and incentivize sustainable mining practices.
Furthermore, global agreements on the responsible sourcing of critical minerals can help ensure that resource production does not come at the expense of vulnerable ecosystems or marginalized communities. Transparency initiatives like the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) are steps in the right direction but need to go further in addressing water issues.
The Road Ahead: A Delicate Balancing Act
The global push towards renewable energy and electrification is essential for addressing climate change. Yet, as this transition accelerates, we must not overlook the environmental costs associated with it. If water scarcity and environmental degradation worsen, they could undermine the very technologies we rely on to combat climate change.
The challenge lies in balancing the urgent demand for critical materials with the finite limits of the planet’s resources. As Dr. Motoshita’s study makes clear, we need to rethink how we source and produce the metals and minerals that will power the future.
Conclusion: Mining with the Planet in Mind
Our planet’s resources are not infinite, and neither is its capacity to absorb human impact. As we chase ambitious goals like net-zero emissions and 100% renewable energy, we need to take a hard look at the materials that make it all possible. Mining has always been a cornerstone of technological progress, but it must evolve to meet the sustainability challenges of the 21st century.
By embracing more responsible practices, investing in recycling, developing alternatives, and respecting planetary boundaries, humanity can build a decarbonized future that is both innovative and sustainable. After all, what’s the point of a greener future if we sacrifice the planet’s most precious resources along the way?
Reference: Kamrul Islam et al, Geological resource production constrained by regional water availability, Science (2025). DOI: 10.1126/science.adk5318. www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adk5318