The Huns burst onto the stage of European history in the 370s CE, establishing a powerful empire that would significantly influence the region, though it would not last long. Their sudden appearance in Europe has intrigued scholars for centuries, especially when it comes to their origins. A longstanding question is whether the Huns were descended from the Xiongnu, an ancient nomadic empire that dominated the Mongolian steppe for several centuries before dissolving around 100 CE. This has led to ongoing debates, as the 300-year gap between the fall of the Xiongnu Empire and the rise of the Huns raises the possibility that the connection might not be direct. Can genetic evidence offer insights into whether the Huns were truly the descendants of the Xiongnu, or whether their appearance in Europe was part of a more complex process of migration and assimilation?
To tackle this question, a research team conducted an extensive study of genetic evidence spanning over 800 years, from the 2nd century BCE to the 6th century CE. Their analysis focused on individuals from various archaeological sites located in regions of Mongolia, Central Asia, and the Carpathian Basin of Central Europe. The study, published in the prestigious journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, aimed to trace the genetic lineage of populations from the Xiongnu era, through the time of the Huns, and into the subsequent centuries.
The research was part of the HistoGenes project, a multidisciplinary initiative involving geneticists, archaeologists, and historians. This team, including experts from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, sequenced the genomes of 370 individuals from different periods. Notably, 35 newly sequenced genomes came from significant historical sites, including a 3rd–4th century site in Kazakhstan and 5th–6th century contexts in the Carpathian Basin, which are believed to be related to the Hun period. Among the findings were exceptional Hun-period burials that displayed Eastern or “steppe” traits, often linked to the nomadic traditions of the Xiongnu and other Central Asian peoples.
Genetic Evidence and Discoveries
The team’s findings were striking and nuanced. While they discovered no large community of steppe-descended individuals living in the Carpathian Basin after the Huns’ arrival, they did identify a small yet distinct group of individuals associated with “eastern-type” burials. These burials, which are characterized by specific burial practices tied to steppe nomadic groups, exhibited genetic signatures that pointed to East Asian ancestry.
The results also revealed a significant discovery through the analysis of identical-by-descent (IBD) segments. IBD analysis traces shared DNA segments across generations and can reveal genealogical connections among individuals. The most remarkable finding was that some of the individuals buried in the Hun period in Europe showed IBD links to prominent figures of the late Xiongnu Empire. Specifically, some shared ancestry with individuals from the largest terrace tomb ever discovered in a Xiongnu context—this was a surprising and strong indication that at least some of the Huns in Europe could trace their ancestry to the elite of the Xiongnu Empire.
Guido Alberto Gnecchi-Ruscone, a co-first author of the study, was astounded by this connection. He explained, “It came as a surprise to discover that few of these Hun-period individuals in Europe share IBD links with some of the highest-ranking imperial elite individuals from the late Xiongnu Empire.” This was a significant step forward in understanding the movement and migration of nomadic peoples across Eurasia.
The Complex Legacy of the Huns
While some direct connections between the Huns in Europe and the Xiongnu elite seem to exist, the genetic landscape of the Hun empire in Europe is far more varied. Zsófia Rácz, another co-first author from Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest, emphasized that the study revealed a “patchwork of ancestries,” suggesting that the Huns did not represent a homogeneous group. Instead, their genetic makeup was shaped by a complex process of mobility and interaction among various populations across Eurasia.
In fact, the genetic diversity of individuals buried in the Carpathian Basin during the Hun period points to a wide range of ancestral backgrounds, both European and East Asian. This stands in contrast to the more direct genetic legacy of the Avars, a different nomadic group that arrived in Europe two centuries after the Huns. Unlike the Huns, who mixed with populations across Eurasia for generations before arriving in Europe, the Avars came to Europe much more recently, after their East-Asian empire had been destroyed by the Turks. As a result, many Avar descendants carried more substantial East Asian ancestry until the end of their reign in around 800 CE.
The findings highlight the diversity and complexity of Eurasian migrations. While the Huns certainly had steppe origins, their movement westward did not result in a large-scale or homogeneous migration. Instead, their empire in Europe was built through a blend of populations and cultural influences. Walter Pohl, a co-corresponding author of the study from the Austrian Academy of Sciences, pointed out the distinct differences in how the Huns and Avars arrived in Europe. “The Huns took many generations on their way westward and mixed with populations across Eurasia,” he explained.
The Huns’ Impact on European Populations
The study also sheds light on the long-term impact of the Huns on the populations of the Carpathian Basin. Despite the significant political changes the Huns instigated, the genetic evidence suggests that the local European populations did not undergo drastic changes due to the Huns’ arrival. Instead, the genetic footprint of the Huns in the region remains relatively limited. As Zuzana Hofmanová, co-corresponding author from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, noted, the Huns reshaped the political landscape, but their genetic legacy outside of the elite burial sites was minimal. The population as a whole, she explained, appears to have been primarily of European origin, with only some steppe influences woven into the local genetic fabric.
This complex mixture of genetic influences is also evident in the various burial practices and cultural traditions observed in the archaeological record. Johannes Krause, director of the Department of Archaeogenetics at the Max Planck Institute, summarized the significance of the study by saying, “From a broader perspective, the study underscores how cutting-edge genetic research, in combination with careful exploration of the archaeological and historical context, can resolve centuries-old debates about the composition and origin of past populations.”
Implications for Our Understanding of Eurasian History
The research provides new insights into the dynamic networks that connected East and West Eurasia during antiquity. It underscores the importance of genetic and archaeological evidence in reconstructing the movements and interactions of ancient populations. The findings highlight the complexity of nomadic migrations and their long-lasting impacts on the societies they encountered.
In particular, the connection between the Huns and the Xiongnu elite suggests that the legacy of the Xiongnu Empire extended far beyond the dissolution of their empire in the 2nd century CE. The Huns, who appeared in Europe centuries later, may have been one of the last remnants of this once-dominant force on the Asian steppe, carrying with them a mix of cultural, genetic, and political influences from their predecessors.
While this research offers significant progress in our understanding of the Huns’ origins and their interactions with other Eurasian peoples, many questions remain. However, the genetic evidence provides a compelling narrative that bridges the gap between the Xiongnu and the Huns, enriching our understanding of the complex history of Eurasian nomads and their role in shaping the ancient world.
Reference: Gnecchi-Ruscone, Guido Alberto et al, Ancient genomes reveal trans-Eurasian connections between the European Huns and the Xiongnu Empire, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2025). DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2418485122. doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2418485122