The hand-held grinding tools used by the first European Neolithic societies are believed to have had significant symbolic value, particularly to the women who used them. Researchers from the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB) recently conducted an in-depth study of grinding stones found in three ritual sites in Germany, revealing how these tools related to time, the cycles of life, nature, and settlements. Their findings, published in the Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, shed new light on how these everyday objects held deep meaning in the context of the Linear Pottery culture, which flourished in Central Europe during the early Neolithic period.
The Study and its Context
The three deposits analyzed in this study were located in Goseck (Saxony-Anhalt) and Sömmerda (Thuringia), both important sites that date back to the Linear Pottery culture. This culture, existing between 4900 BC and 4650 BC, is one of the oldest agricultural societies in Europe. The deposits studied by the researchers contained sets of grinding tools, which were crucial for the processing of cereals, a key aspect of Neolithic life. These grinding tools, carefully buried in ritual contexts, show a sophisticated understanding of time, symbolism, and the role of women in Neolithic society.
The researchers closely examined the technical, functional, and morphological characteristics of the grinding stones. In total, they studied fourteen sets of grinding tools across the three sites, as well as the orientation and arrangement of the items within the deposits. This analysis offered valuable insights into the deeper meanings behind the ritual use of these tools, going beyond their mere functionality.
Symbolic Meaning of the Grinding Stones
The results of the study suggest that the grinding stones were not simply everyday objects; they were imbued with deep symbolic meaning related to the cycles of birth, life, and death. Some of the grinding tools had been freshly withdrawn from domestic use, others were in the middle of their life cycle, and a few were completely worn out. The varying states of wear reflect a biography of the tools, and by extension, the life cycles of women. These tools were not discarded carelessly, but were placed with care in pairs, with the working parts in contact and oriented from east to west.
The fact that the tools were made from materials that came from distant areas, combined with the significant effort put into their production and curation, suggests that these grinding stones held a high social value. The careful placement and orientation of the tools within the deposits indicate that they were involved in ritual practices and may have been seen as representations of life stages, perhaps even marking specific transitions for the women who used them.
Erik Zamzow, a doctoral researcher at the Department of Prehistory of the UAB and the lead author of the study, states, “These results reflect the high social value that these objects had and lead us to consider that the notion that is at the heart of the ‘biography’ traced by the tools is time. A concept embodied in stages of production, use, reproduction, and burial, which suggest cycles of birth, life, and death, and contemplated from the perspective of women, the main users of these stones.“
The Daily Life and the Role of Women
In the daily life of the Linear Pottery culture, women were primarily responsible for the domestic tasks, including the grinding of cereals. The grinding stones, which they used frequently for hours each day, were essential for the production of food. The varying conditions of the stones, from new to worn-out, symbolize the passage of time and the stages of human life. The selection of grinding tools for ritual burial could be seen as a way to mark the cyclical nature of life and death.
According to Roberto Risch, another researcher from the UAB and co-coordinator of the study, the deposits reflect a complex and multi-faceted understanding of time. The symbolic value of the grinding stones went beyond the rhythm of the annual harvests, a concept that had often been used in earlier studies to explain their symbolism. Instead, this new interpretation adds another layer, suggesting that the tools may reflect the lifespan of women and their roles within the social structure of these Neolithic communities.
Risch further elaborates on this idea, stating, “The symbolism would be related to the lives of specific women, such as those who still today make use of these types of grinding stones for hours a day in self-sufficient agricultural societies. Each grinding stone would be the result of a daily adjustment between a woman’s body and her tools for years and decades.“
The Connection to Women’s Lives and Fertility
The study builds on previous interpretations of Neolithic ritual deposits, which have often been linked to day and night, fertility, and festivals. However, this research emphasizes a new perspective: that these deposits are not just symbolic of agricultural cycles, but are tied directly to the lifetime of women and their roles in society. Women were not only the primary users of these grinding tools, but their life stages—birth, growth, reproduction, and death—are encapsulated in the life cycles of the tools themselves.
The tools were an essential part of the daily lives of women in the Linear Pottery culture, and their careful deposition in ritual contexts suggests that these objects held great significance. Over the years, the wear and tear of the stones could have symbolized the aging and death of a woman or a group of women, as the tools passed through different stages of life. By burying these tools in ritual contexts, the community may have been expressing reverence for the women’s labor and contributions, as well as marking the continuity of life.
Comparative Findings Across Regions
The grinding tools analyzed in this study are similar to those found in other parts of Central Europe, including France and Belgium, as well as in several regions of Germany. Across these locations, researchers have uncovered a total of 20 deposits containing 89 grinding tools, all associated with Neolithic settlements and ritual enclosures. While there are some variations in the style and construction of these tools, the central theme remains the same: these grinding stones were not merely functional tools but held important symbolic and ritualistic meaning for the communities that used them.
The Methodology and Future Research
The methodology employed by the researchers, which focused on the technical and functional aspects of the tools as well as their arrangement in the deposits, is groundbreaking. As Marina Eguíluz, another author of the study, points out, “The techno-functional evidences of the tools have almost not been taken into account to explore the symbolic meaning of these types of deposits.” The research team hopes that future studies will build on their approach, incorporating similar methods to further validate and expand on their hypothesis.
By examining these grinding stones in such detail, the researchers have uncovered a wealth of information not just about the role of women in Neolithic societies but also about how the early agricultural communities of Central Europe viewed the passage of time. These findings highlight the complexity of Neolithic rituals, beliefs, and values, as well as the profound symbolic significance of seemingly mundane objects like grinding stones.
Conclusions and Impact on Neolithic Studies
The study of these ritual deposits provides new insights into the economy, ideology, and social structure of early Neolithic communities. The careful selection, use, and deposition of the grinding stones reflect an advanced understanding of time as both a natural and cultural construct. The fact that these stones were closely linked to the lives of women and were used in the context of rituals demonstrates the significance of gender and life cycles in shaping Neolithic ideologies.
This research challenges earlier interpretations that focused primarily on the agricultural year and introduces a more nuanced view of how time, life, and death were intertwined in the beliefs of early European societies. By focusing on the daily lives and rituals of women, this study offers a fresh perspective on the role of domestic labor and gender in shaping the ritual practices of the Neolithic period. It underscores the importance of objects like grinding stones as not just tools, but as symbols of life, identity, and continuity in the evolving agricultural societies of Central Europe.
Reference: Erik Zamzow et al, Grinding Stone Deposits of the Linear Pottery Culture in Central Germany, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports (2025). DOI: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.104998