The Funnel Beaker Culture (4000–2800 BCE), a significant early phase of the Neolithic era in Southern Scandinavia and northern Germany, is widely known for representing the dawn of agriculture and animal husbandry. This period marked a revolutionary shift for human societies in this region, as people transitioned from hunting and gathering to cultivating crops and raising livestock. However, while much has been uncovered about the lifestyle of these early farmers, questions remain about the specific ingredients that made up their diet, particularly the plant foods beyond staple cereals.
Despite decades of archaeological research into the material culture and agricultural practices of the Funnel Beaker Culture, the exact nature of the plant-based foods consumed by these early agriculturalists remained somewhat obscure. While it has long been established that they cultivated wheat and barley, it was unclear which additional plant products were being processed and eaten, and whether cereal grains were used to produce bread, gruel, or other forms of food.
A recent study, published in the Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, offers new insight into the dietary practices of the earliest farmers, shedding light on the range of foodstuffs that may have enriched their lives. The research was conducted by the Collaborative Research Center (CRC) 1266, based in Kiel, Germany, which focuses on the investigation of prehistoric agricultural practices. The study specifically explores the microfossil residues preserved on grinding stones from the site of Oldenburg LA 77, an archaeological settlement located in the region of modern-day Northern Germany.
The Oldenburg LA 77 Settlement: A Window into Early Farming Communities
The settlement of Oldenburg LA 77 dates back to the Middle Neolithic period (3270–2920 cal BCE) and offers a particularly rich insight into the agricultural lifestyle of the Funnel Beaker people. Situated on a sandy island in the former wetland area of the Oldenburger Graben, a region on the southwestern coast of the Baltic Sea, this settlement is one of the best-explored sites for understanding the evolution of Neolithic communities. The wetland provided the perfect environment for the early farmers, rich in resources from both aquatic and terrestrial plants, alongside wild animals and fertile soil for crop cultivation.
Excavations at Oldenburg LA 77 have unearthed evidence of well-planned settlements that included numerous houses, a communal well, as well as thousands of artifacts—among them pottery fragments, flint tools, and grinding stones. These artifacts are invaluable for understanding the daily lives of the people who lived there, particularly the grinding stones. According to Dr. Jingping An, a research assistant in CRC 1266 and lead author of the study, grinding stones hold crucial information about the types of plant foods processed by the people. Even small fragments of these stones can carry abundant plant microfossils, such as starch grains and phytoliths, which provide direct evidence of food preparation practices.
Unearthing a Diverse Diet: From Cereals to Wild Plants
One of the most striking findings of the study is the remarkable diversity of plant foods that early farmers in Oldenburg LA 77 seem to have consumed. Beyond wheat and barley, the plant microfossils found on the grinding stones reveal a fascinating array of wild ingredients, ranging from wild grasses and knotweeds to acorns, starch-rich tubers, and possibly even a small number of wild legume seeds. The discovery of these wild plant foods adds complexity to the previously held view that the early farmers’ diet was limited primarily to cereals.
The wild plants recovered from Oldenburg LA 77 are of particular interest to archaeologists. While previous archaeobotanical studies had documented the presence of charred wild plant remains in soil samples, the new study directly confirms that these wild ingredients were an active part of the diet through their presence in grinding activities. Prof. Wiebke Kirleis, the study’s senior author, emphasizes the significance of this revelation. “Charred wild plants have been previously documented by archaeobotanical analyses of soil samples, but this study provides further confirmation of their consumption by examining food processing techniques directly,” she explains. This finding underscores that the early farmers of Oldenburg LA 77 were adept at enriching their diet with a variety of wild plant foods, effectively supplementing their reliance on cultivated cereals.
The incorporation of wild plants into their diet may also reflect a broader trend within the Funnel Beaker Culture, as evidence from the nearby Frydenlund site (ca. 3600 BCE) in present-day Denmark shows that people at Frydenlund also relied on a diverse range of wild plants. Prof. Kirleis’ recent study of plant microfossils from Frydenlund, also published in the Journal of Archaeological Science, reinforces the notion that wild plant consumption was widespread among early Neolithic agriculturalists.
Dr. An, co-author of the study, is quick to point out the broader implications of this discovery: “Our results suggest that the first farmers knew how to diversify and enrich their diet, consuming a variety of plant foods beyond simple cereals.” This highlights the dietary flexibility and knowledge of the early farming communities, illustrating how they may have cultivated and gathered a wide range of plant foods, depending on availability, seasonality, and local ecosystems.
The Mystery of Cereal Consumption: Bread, Gruel, or Both?
While the diversity of plant foods consumed by the Funnel Beaker people is exciting, one of the more intriguing questions that this study addresses is the question of how cereals were processed and used. At Oldenburg LA 77, grinding stone analyses reveal that cereal grains, including wheat and barley, were likely crushed into coarse fragments or ground into fine flour. The presence of cereal residues on pottery vessels, combined with the evidence of cooking equipment such as “baking plates,” suggests that the early farmers may have used these ingredients to produce flatbread, a foodstuff more complex than simply boiling or grinding cereals into porridge.
This is in stark contrast to the results from Frydenlund, where grinding evidence of cereals was notably absent. Instead, the archaeological evidence from this Danish site indicates that cereals were likely consumed in the form of gruel or porridge. Prof. Kirleis notes, “The distinct absence of cereal grinding tools at Frydenlund, coupled with the abundance of carbonized cereals in the soil samples, points towards the consumption of cereals primarily as a form of liquid-based meal, like gruel.”
Despite these differences, both sites reveal that early farmers shared an interest in wild plants, confirming that wild ingredients were a vital part of the dietary repertoire. However, the ways in which cereals were consumed in each settlement appear to differ significantly. “It is particularly interesting to see that the first farmers, despite having similar interests in consuming wild plant foods, differed in how they prepared their cereals,” says Prof. Kirleis. This suggests that food preparation and cooking in the Neolithic era were more varied and nuanced than previously imagined.
In this regard, Dr. An emphasizes that the study’s findings reveal just how complex early agricultural food practices were. “Food preparation and cooking for the first farmers involved a high level of diversity, as evidenced by the different methods they used to prepare cereals in various regions,” he observes. This speaks to a level of regional variation in dietary preferences, which was likely influenced by local customs, available ingredients, and methods of food processing and preparation.
Conclusion: A Richer Understanding of Neolithic Diets
The new research conducted on grinding stones from Oldenburg LA 77 significantly advances our understanding of the culinary practices of the earliest Neolithic farmers. By investigating microfossils preserved on these stones, the study reveals not only the importance of cultivated cereals like wheat and barley but also underscores the significant role played by wild plant foods in these people’s diets. It suggests that early farmers were more knowledgeable about and resourceful with their available food options than had previously been acknowledged.
Additionally, the study offers a fascinating glimpse into the variability of Neolithic cuisine. From grinding cereals into fine flour to producing flatbreads, or possibly preparing grain-based porridge, early farming communities exhibited considerable variation in how they transformed their agricultural produce into food. Moreover, the discovery that wild plants were regularly consumed further enriches the understanding of Neolithic food practices, proving that these early farmers had complex and diverse culinary traditions.
Ultimately, these insights into the Funnel Beaker Culture offer not only a window into the daily lives of early Neolithic agriculturalists but also provide important information on the evolution of farming and foodways in prehistoric Europe. The ongoing study of ancient food practices holds the potential to reveal even more about how these communities adapted to their environments and laid the foundations for modern agriculture.
Reference: Jingping An et al, Functional exploration of grinding and polishing stones from the Neolithic settlement site of Oldenburg LA77, Northern Germany − evidence from plant microfossil analysis, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports (2024). DOI: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2024.104913