A newly uncovered Greek papyrus, recently published by scholars from the Austrian Academy of Sciences, the University of Vienna, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, has revealed rare and crucial details about the legal proceedings in Roman-occupied regions, offering scholars an unprecedented view into how the Roman state managed criminal activities, particularly financial crimes involving tax fraud and slavery. This fascinating papyrus was rediscovered as part of the collections of the Israel Antiquities Authority, which had long-held it under the erroneous belief that it was written in Nabataean, a language and script used by a group in the ancient desert regions. In a landmark new publication in the journal Tyche, the research team brings to light how the document provides an exceptionally well-documented case of Roman legal proceedings from the Roman provinces of Iudaea (roughly modern-day Israel) and Arabia (today’s Jordan), offering fresh insights into an era of profound upheaval marked by revolts and political tensions in the Eastern Mediterranean.
Rediscovery and Significance of the Papyrus
This Greek papyrus, which at 133 lines is the longest ever found in the Judean Desert, has not been seen in its entirety before and has now been brought to academic attention for the first time in a century. Initially overlooked and misclassified as Nabataean, the papyrus was sitting unnoticed within the vast archives of the Israel Antiquities Authority until its rediscovery by Professor Hannah Cotton Paltiel in 2014, who was volunteering at the scrolls laboratory and organizing documentary papyri. When she first came across the document, she immediately recognized its significance upon seeing the Greek script, famously exclaiming, “It’s Greek to me!” In honor of her discovery, the papyrus was named “P. Cotton,” following standard papyrological practice.
Analysis of the Papyrus: A Trial Before Roman Jurisdiction
The paper published in Tyche brings this remarkable find to light, highlighting the complexity and detail of its contents. The papyrus records prosecutorial notes detailing a legal trial that took place during the early 2nd century CE, just prior to the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–136 CE). The text, captured with vivid detail, primarily comprises a draft transcript of a hearing, offering extraordinary insights into the mechanics of Roman judicial proceedings. This trial revolves around a case of tax fraud and forgery, with the defendants accused of having masterminded a complex illegal scheme involving the fictitious sale, manumission, and tax evasion tied to slavery within the provinces of Iudaea and Arabia.
The papyrus paints an immediate picture of legal strategy and procedure—one prosecutor’s dialogue involves discussing various pieces of evidence, evaluating their strength, and preparing for objections from the defense, lending scholars direct insight into the role of rhetoric and legal maneuvering in Roman court cases of this period. As Dr. Anna Dolganov of the Austrian Academy of Sciences notes, “This papyrus is extraordinary because it offers such direct access to how Roman legal proceedings operated in the East. It was certainly rare for documents such as this to survive, and it’s an unparalleled record for studying this chapter in the empire’s history.”
The Crime and the Defendants: A Case of Forgery and Fraud
The case chronicled in the papyrus centers around two individuals—Gadalias and Saulos—accused of serious crimes involving forgery and financial fraud. Gadalias, the son of a Roman notary (and possibly a Roman citizen), had a notable criminal history, which included extortion, counterfeiting, violence, and even incitement to rebellion. His partner-in-crime, Saulos, was implicated in facilitating the illegal sale and manumission of enslaved individuals in a way that evaded Roman tax requirements. Together, their activities spread corruption within a system that relied on proper documentation for legal sales and manumissions to collect taxes due to the empire. The crimes were well-calculated, and Gadalias and Saulos went as far as forging official documents to conceal their unlawful activities.
Importantly, their crimes went beyond simple tax evasion, instead reaching into complex legal schemes and the exploitation of slavery, which was a widespread institution under Roman rule, but one that became subject to increasingly rigorous government control. As Dr. Dolganov explains, “Roman law viewed forgery and tax fraud with the utmost seriousness, carrying severe penalties—ranging from imprisonment and hard labor to the death penalty.” This was an era of political instability in the eastern provinces, marked by tension in the years leading up to the Bar Kokhba Revolt, which historians regard as one of the major Jewish uprisings against Roman imperial authority.
Linking Criminality to Political Unrest
While the case documented in the papyrus largely focuses on economic crimes and their social ramifications, it is evident that the timing and individuals involved offer additional layers of complexity. The defendants were already linked to rebellion and anti-Roman sentiment. For example, the document specifically connects Gadalias and Saulos to insurrectionist activities during Emperor Hadrian’s visit to the region in 129–130 CE. Both men’s prior engagements in illicit activities might have raised suspicions among Roman authorities, who frequently tied acts of rebellion to economic crimes as potential smokescreens for subversive activity.
The papyrus itself implies that the defendants’ criminal activity might have been viewed with greater suspicion due to the politically charged atmosphere of the second century CE in the Roman East. While it is not definitively established whether Gadalias and Saulos were directly involved in the revolt’s precursor movements, their actions were unquestionably framed in a climate of tension and resistance, further compounding the legal repercussions they faced.
As Dr. Avner Ecker, another member of the research team, comments, “The fact that the document was found in the Judean Desert—likely during the Bar Kokhba revolt, a period of large-scale resistance against the Roman Empire—only enhances its significance. It is one of the most illuminating court cases documented for Iudaea during the period, alongside the more famous trial of Jesus.”
The Broader Roman Context and Judicial Insights
In addition to its detailed narrative of crime and punishment, the papyrus offers crucial insights into Roman judicial systems that were employed across the empire—specifically within Greek-speaking regions such as Iudaea and Arabia. It helps establish a clear link between the legal infrastructure that existed in Egypt (where papyri are more commonly preserved) and its expansion to other territories under Roman rule.
The mention of compulsory jury service and the description of the Roman assize tour — in which governors would travel around their provinces to conduct trials—underscores the administrative breadth of Roman governance, even in far-flung regions. Moreover, it reveals the extent to which Roman imperial control reached into the private lives of its subjects. The legal oversight provided the empire a model for regulating private business transactions and preventing fraud, even in peripheral regions like Judea.
The Importance of Context and Preservation
One of the most fascinating aspects of this find is the preservation of the papyrus itself, which was likely hidden away during the turbulence of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, a time of widespread rebellion and turmoil. While we cannot definitively know the trial’s final outcome, the survival of such a document in such dire conditions (whether it was tucked into a cave or somehow safeguarded) tells us much about the era’s turbulent character. The fact that it survived for almost two millennia before being unearthed provides a rare glimpse into the legal framework underpinning one of the largest empires in world history.
Conclusion
The new discovery of this Greek papyrus brings invaluable information to the forefront, highlighting both the inner workings of Roman legal systems and providing crucial context for understanding the volatile political environment of the Eastern Roman provinces in the early 2nd century. With its vivid portrayal of Roman judicial proceedings, criminal behavior, and political tensions, the papyrus enriches our historical understanding, offering scholars a uniquely comprehensive view of life in the Roman Near East, from legal norms to criminal activity, and how both were influenced by broader movements of rebellion and unrest.
Reference: Forgery and Fiscal Fraud in Iudaea and Arabia on the Eve of the Bar Kokhba Revolt: Memorandum and Minutes of a Trial before a Roman Official (P.Cotton), Tyche (2025). DOI: 10.25365/tyche-2023-38-5. tyche.univie.ac.at/index.php/t … he/article/view/9224